做定点数学的最佳方法是什么?
我需要为没有FPU的Nintendo DS加快程序速度,因此我需要将浮点数学运算(仿真且缓慢)更改为定点运算。
开始时,我将浮点数更改为整数,并在需要转换它们时,使用x >> 8将定点变量x转换为实际数字,并使用x << 8转换为定点。不久,我发现无法跟踪需要转换的内容,并且我也意识到很难更改数字的精度(在这种情况下为8)。
我的问题是,我应该如何使它更容易且仍然快速?我应该创建一个FixedPoint类,还是仅创建一个FixedPoint8 typedef或者带有某些函数/宏的结构来转换它们,或者其他?我是否应该在变量名称中添加一些内容以显示其定点数?
解决方案
回答
无论我们决定采用哪种方式(我倾向于使用typedef和一些CPP宏进行转换),都需要谨慎进行一些规则的来回转换。
我们可能会发现我们永远不需要来回转换。想象一下整个系统中的所有东西都是x256.
回答
更改定点表示形式通常称为"缩放"。
如果我们可以在不影响性能的情况下使用此类进行操作,那么这就是方法。它在很大程度上取决于编译器及其内联方式。如果使用类会降低性能,那么我们需要更传统的C风格方法。 OOP方法将为我们提供由编译器强制执行的类型安全性,而这种安全性是传统实现仅近似的。
@cibyr具有良好的OOP实现。现在换一个更传统的。
为了跟踪缩放哪些变量,我们需要使用一致的约定。在每个变量名的末尾添加一个符号,以指示该值是否已缩放,然后编写宏SCALE()和UNSCALE()扩展为x >> 8和x << 8.
#define SCALE(x) (x>>8) #define UNSCALE(x) (x<<8) xPositionUnscaled = UNSCALE(10); xPositionScaled = SCALE(xPositionUnscaled);
使用这么多的符号似乎是额外的工作,但是请注意,我们无需看其他行就能一眼看出任何一行都是正确的。例如:
xPositionScaled = SCALE(xPositionScaled);
通过检查显然是错误的。
这是Joel在这篇文章中提到的Apps Hungarian想法的一种变体。
回答
游戏编程大师的原始版Tricks中有完整的章节介绍定点数学的实现。
回答
在现代C ++实现中,使用简单而精益的抽象(例如具体类)不会对性能造成任何影响。定点计算正是使用经过适当设计的类将使我们免受大量错误困扰的地方。
因此,我们应该编写一个FixedPoint8类。对其进行彻底的测试和调试。如果我们必须说服它与使用普通整数相比具有出色的性能,请对其进行测量。
通过将定点计算的复杂性转移到一个地方,可以避免许多麻烦。
如果愿意,可以通过将其制成模板并将其替换为例如`typedef FixedPoint <short,8> FixedPoint8;"来进一步提高类的实用性,但是在目标体系结构上可能不需要,因此首先避免模板的复杂性。
我会从Boost库中开始寻找互联网上某个好的定点类。
回答
template <int precision = 8> class FixedPoint { private: int val_; public: inline FixedPoint(int val) : val_ (val << precision) {}; inline operator int() { return val_ >> precision; } // Other operators... };
回答
如果没有特殊的硬件来处理浮点数,我就不会在CPU上使用浮点数。我的建议是将ALL数字视为按比例缩放到特定因子的整数。例如,所有货币值都是以整数形式的美分,而不是浮点数的美元。例如,0.72表示为整数72.
那么加减法就是一个非常简单的整数运算,例如(0.72 +1变为72 + 100变为172变为1.72)。
乘法稍微复杂一点,因为它需要整数乘法,然后再进行缩减,例如(0.72 * 2变成72 * 200变成14400变成144(缩减)变成1.44)。
这可能需要特殊的功能来执行更复杂的数学运算(正弦,余弦等),但即使是那些功能也可以通过使用查找表来加快。示例:由于我们使用的是固定2表示形式,因此(0.0,1](0-99)范围内只有100个值,并且sin / cos重复此范围之外,因此我们只需要一个100整数的查找表。
干杯,
Pax。
回答
浮点代码实际上使用小数点吗?如果是这样:
首先,我们必须阅读Randy Yates关于定点数学简介的论文:
http://www.digitalsignallabs.com/fp.pdf
然后,我们需要对浮点代码进行"概要分析",以找出代码中"关键"点所需的定点值的适当范围,例如U(5,3)=左5位,右3位,无符号。
此时,我们可以应用上述论文中的算术规则;规则指定如何解释算术运算产生的位。我们可以编写宏或者函数来执行操作。
为了比较浮点数和定点数的结果,保持浮点数版本很方便。
回答
我们可以尝试我的定点类(最新提供的@ https://github.com/eteran/cpp-utilities)
// From: https://github.com/eteran/cpp-utilities/edit/master/Fixed.h // See also: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/79677/whats-the-best-way-to-do-fixed-point-math /* * The MIT License (MIT) * * Copyright (c) 2015 Evan Teran * * Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy * of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal * in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights * to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell * copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is * furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: * * The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all * copies or substantial portions of the Software. * * THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR * IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, * FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE * AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER * LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, * OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE * SOFTWARE. */ #ifndef FIXED_H_ #define FIXED_H_ #include <ostream> #include <exception> #include <cstddef> // for size_t #include <cstdint> #include <type_traits> #include <boost/operators.hpp> namespace numeric { template <size_t I, size_t F> class Fixed; namespace detail { // helper templates to make magic with types :) // these allow us to determine resonable types from // a desired size, they also let us infer the next largest type // from a type which is nice for the division op template <size_t T> struct type_from_size { static const bool is_specialized = false; typedef void value_type; }; #if defined(__GNUC__) && defined(__x86_64__) template <> struct type_from_size<128> { static const bool is_specialized = true; static const size_t size = 128; typedef __int128 value_type; typedef unsigned __int128 unsigned_type; typedef __int128 signed_type; typedef type_from_size<256> next_size; }; #endif template <> struct type_from_size<64> { static const bool is_specialized = true; static const size_t size = 64; typedef int64_t value_type; typedef uint64_t unsigned_type; typedef int64_t signed_type; typedef type_from_size<128> next_size; }; template <> struct type_from_size<32> { static const bool is_specialized = true; static const size_t size = 32; typedef int32_t value_type; typedef uint32_t unsigned_type; typedef int32_t signed_type; typedef type_from_size<64> next_size; }; template <> struct type_from_size<16> { static const bool is_specialized = true; static const size_t size = 16; typedef int16_t value_type; typedef uint16_t unsigned_type; typedef int16_t signed_type; typedef type_from_size<32> next_size; }; template <> struct type_from_size<8> { static const bool is_specialized = true; static const size_t size = 8; typedef int8_t value_type; typedef uint8_t unsigned_type; typedef int8_t signed_type; typedef type_from_size<16> next_size; }; // this is to assist in adding support for non-native base // types (for adding big-int support), this should be fine // unless your bit-int class doesn't nicely support casting template <class B, class N> B next_to_base(const N& rhs) { return static_cast<B>(rhs); } struct divide_by_zero : std::exception { }; template <size_t I, size_t F> Fixed<I,F> divide(const Fixed<I,F> &numerator, const Fixed<I,F> &denominator, Fixed<I,F> &remainder, typename std::enable_if<type_from_size<I+F>::next_size::is_specialized>::type* = 0) { typedef typename Fixed<I,F>::next_type next_type; typedef typename Fixed<I,F>::base_type base_type; static const size_t fractional_bits = Fixed<I,F>::fractional_bits; next_type t(numerator.to_raw()); t <<= fractional_bits; Fixed<I,F> quotient; quotient = Fixed<I,F>::from_base(next_to_base<base_type>(t / denominator.to_raw())); remainder = Fixed<I,F>::from_base(next_to_base<base_type>(t % denominator.to_raw())); return quotient; } template <size_t I, size_t F> Fixed<I,F> divide(Fixed<I,F> numerator, Fixed<I,F> denominator, Fixed<I,F> &remainder, typename std::enable_if<!type_from_size<I+F>::next_size::is_specialized>::type* = 0) { // NOTE(eteran): division is broken for large types :-( // especially when dealing with negative quantities typedef typename Fixed<I,F>::base_type base_type; typedef typename Fixed<I,F>::unsigned_type unsigned_type; static const int bits = Fixed<I,F>::total_bits; if(denominator == 0) { throw divide_by_zero(); } else { int sign = 0; Fixed<I,F> quotient; if(numerator < 0) { sign ^= 1; numerator = -numerator; } if(denominator < 0) { sign ^= 1; denominator = -denominator; } base_type n = numerator.to_raw(); base_type d = denominator.to_raw(); base_type x = 1; base_type answer = 0; // egyptian division algorithm while((n >= d) && (((d >> (bits - 1)) & 1) == 0)) { x <<= 1; d <<= 1; } while(x != 0) { if(n >= d) { n -= d; answer += x; } x >>= 1; d >>= 1; } unsigned_type l1 = n; unsigned_type l2 = denominator.to_raw(); // calculate the lower bits (needs to be unsigned) // unfortunately for many fractions this overflows the type still :-/ const unsigned_type lo = (static_cast<unsigned_type>(n) << F) / denominator.to_raw(); quotient = Fixed<I,F>::from_base((answer << F) | lo); remainder = n; if(sign) { quotient = -quotient; } return quotient; } } // this is the usual implementation of multiplication template <size_t I, size_t F> void multiply(const Fixed<I,F> &lhs, const Fixed<I,F> &rhs, Fixed<I,F> &result, typename std::enable_if<type_from_size<I+F>::next_size::is_specialized>::type* = 0) { typedef typename Fixed<I,F>::next_type next_type; typedef typename Fixed<I,F>::base_type base_type; static const size_t fractional_bits = Fixed<I,F>::fractional_bits; next_type t(static_cast<next_type>(lhs.to_raw()) * static_cast<next_type>(rhs.to_raw())); t >>= fractional_bits; result = Fixed<I,F>::from_base(next_to_base<base_type>(t)); } // this is the fall back version we use when we don't have a next size // it is slightly slower, but is more robust since it doesn't // require and upgraded type template <size_t I, size_t F> void multiply(const Fixed<I,F> &lhs, const Fixed<I,F> &rhs, Fixed<I,F> &result, typename std::enable_if<!type_from_size<I+F>::next_size::is_specialized>::type* = 0) { typedef typename Fixed<I,F>::base_type base_type; static const size_t fractional_bits = Fixed<I,F>::fractional_bits; static const size_t integer_mask = Fixed<I,F>::integer_mask; static const size_t fractional_mask = Fixed<I,F>::fractional_mask; // more costly but doesn't need a larger type const base_type a_hi = (lhs.to_raw() & integer_mask) >> fractional_bits; const base_type b_hi = (rhs.to_raw() & integer_mask) >> fractional_bits; const base_type a_lo = (lhs.to_raw() & fractional_mask); const base_type b_lo = (rhs.to_raw() & fractional_mask); const base_type x1 = a_hi * b_hi; const base_type x2 = a_hi * b_lo; const base_type x3 = a_lo * b_hi; const base_type x4 = a_lo * b_lo; result = Fixed<I,F>::from_base((x1 << fractional_bits) + (x3 + x2) + (x4 >> fractional_bits)); } } /* * inheriting from boost::operators enables us to be a drop in replacement for base types * without having to specify all the different versions of operators manually */ template <size_t I, size_t F> class Fixed : boost::operators<Fixed<I,F>> { static_assert(detail::type_from_size<I + F>::is_specialized, "invalid combination of sizes"); public: static const size_t fractional_bits = F; static const size_t integer_bits = I; static const size_t total_bits = I + F; typedef detail::type_from_size<total_bits> base_type_info; typedef typename base_type_info::value_type base_type; typedef typename base_type_info::next_size::value_type next_type; typedef typename base_type_info::unsigned_type unsigned_type; public: static const size_t base_size = base_type_info::size; static const base_type fractional_mask = ~((~base_type(0)) << fractional_bits); static const base_type integer_mask = ~fractional_mask; public: static const base_type one = base_type(1) << fractional_bits; public: // constructors Fixed() : data_(0) { } Fixed(long n) : data_(base_type(n) << fractional_bits) { // TODO(eteran): assert in range! } Fixed(unsigned long n) : data_(base_type(n) << fractional_bits) { // TODO(eteran): assert in range! } Fixed(int n) : data_(base_type(n) << fractional_bits) { // TODO(eteran): assert in range! } Fixed(unsigned int n) : data_(base_type(n) << fractional_bits) { // TODO(eteran): assert in range! } Fixed(float n) : data_(static_cast<base_type>(n * one)) { // TODO(eteran): assert in range! } Fixed(double n) : data_(static_cast<base_type>(n * one)) { // TODO(eteran): assert in range! } Fixed(const Fixed &o) : data_(o.data_) { } Fixed& operator=(const Fixed &o) { data_ = o.data_; return *this; } private: // this makes it simpler to create a fixed point object from // a native type without scaling // use "Fixed::from_base" in order to perform this. struct NoScale {}; Fixed(base_type n, const NoScale &) : data_(n) { } public: static Fixed from_base(base_type n) { return Fixed(n, NoScale()); } public: // comparison operators bool operator==(const Fixed &o) const { return data_ == o.data_; } bool operator<(const Fixed &o) const { return data_ < o.data_; } public: // unary operators bool operator!() const { return !data_; } Fixed operator~() const { Fixed t(*this); t.data_ = ~t.data_; return t; } Fixed operator-() const { Fixed t(*this); t.data_ = -t.data_; return t; } Fixed operator+() const { return *this; } Fixed& operator++() { data_ += one; return *this; } Fixed& operator--() { data_ -= one; return *this; } public: // basic math operators Fixed& operator+=(const Fixed &n) { data_ += n.data_; return *this; } Fixed& operator-=(const Fixed &n) { data_ -= n.data_; return *this; } Fixed& operator&=(const Fixed &n) { data_ &= n.data_; return *this; } Fixed& operator|=(const Fixed &n) { data_ |= n.data_; return *this; } Fixed& operator^=(const Fixed &n) { data_ ^= n.data_; return *this; } Fixed& operator*=(const Fixed &n) { detail::multiply(*this, n, *this); return *this; } Fixed& operator/=(const Fixed &n) { Fixed temp; *this = detail::divide(*this, n, temp); return *this; } Fixed& operator>>=(const Fixed &n) { data_ >>= n.to_int(); return *this; } Fixed& operator<<=(const Fixed &n) { data_ <<= n.to_int(); return *this; } public: // conversion to basic types int to_int() const { return (data_ & integer_mask) >> fractional_bits; } unsigned int to_uint() const { return (data_ & integer_mask) >> fractional_bits; } float to_float() const { return static_cast<float>(data_) / Fixed::one; } double to_double() const { return static_cast<double>(data_) / Fixed::one; } base_type to_raw() const { return data_; } public: void swap(Fixed &rhs) { using std::swap; swap(data_, rhs.data_); } public: base_type data_; }; // if we have the same fractional portion, but differing integer portions, we trivially upgrade the smaller type template <size_t I1, size_t I2, size_t F> typename std::conditional<I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F>>::type operator+(const Fixed<I1,F> &lhs, const Fixed<I2,F> &rhs) { typedef typename std::conditional< I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F> >::type T; const T l = T::from_base(lhs.to_raw()); const T r = T::from_base(rhs.to_raw()); return l + r; } template <size_t I1, size_t I2, size_t F> typename std::conditional<I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F>>::type operator-(const Fixed<I1,F> &lhs, const Fixed<I2,F> &rhs) { typedef typename std::conditional< I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F> >::type T; const T l = T::from_base(lhs.to_raw()); const T r = T::from_base(rhs.to_raw()); return l - r; } template <size_t I1, size_t I2, size_t F> typename std::conditional<I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F>>::type operator*(const Fixed<I1,F> &lhs, const Fixed<I2,F> &rhs) { typedef typename std::conditional< I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F> >::type T; const T l = T::from_base(lhs.to_raw()); const T r = T::from_base(rhs.to_raw()); return l * r; } template <size_t I1, size_t I2, size_t F> typename std::conditional<I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F>>::type operator/(const Fixed<I1,F> &lhs, const Fixed<I2,F> &rhs) { typedef typename std::conditional< I1 >= I2, Fixed<I1,F>, Fixed<I2,F> >::type T; const T l = T::from_base(lhs.to_raw()); const T r = T::from_base(rhs.to_raw()); return l / r; } template <size_t I, size_t F> std::ostream &operator<<(std::ostream &os, const Fixed<I,F> &f) { os << f.to_double(); return os; } template <size_t I, size_t F> const size_t Fixed<I,F>::fractional_bits; template <size_t I, size_t F> const size_t Fixed<I,F>::integer_bits; template <size_t I, size_t F> const size_t Fixed<I,F>::total_bits; } #endif
它被设计为几乎可以替代浮点数/双精度数,并且具有可选的精度。它确实利用了boost来添加所有必要的数学运算符重载,因此我们也将需要它(我相信为此,它只是标头依赖性,而不是库依赖性)。
顺便说一句,常见用法可能是这样的:
using namespace numeric; typedef Fixed<16, 16> fixed; fixed f;
唯一的实际规则是数字必须加起来等于系统的本机大小,例如8、16、32、64.
回答
当我第一次遇到定点数时,我发现Joe Lemieux的文章《用C语言定点数学》非常有用,它确实提出了一种表示定点值的方法。
但是,我并没有把他的联合表示用于定点数字。我大多数都具有C定点的经验,因此我也没有选择使用类的选择。不过,在大多数情况下,我认为在宏中定义小数位数并使用描述性变量名称使操作起来相当容易。另外,我发现最好具有用于乘法(尤其是除法)的宏或者函数,否则我们很快就会得到不可读的代码。
例如,使用24.8值:
#include "stdio.h" /* Declarations for fixed point stuff */ typedef int int_fixed; #define FRACT_BITS 8 #define FIXED_POINT_ONE (1 << FRACT_BITS) #define MAKE_INT_FIXED(x) ((x) << FRACT_BITS) #define MAKE_FLOAT_FIXED(x) ((int_fixed)((x) * FIXED_POINT_ONE)) #define MAKE_FIXED_INT(x) ((x) >> FRACT_BITS) #define MAKE_FIXED_FLOAT(x) (((float)(x)) / FIXED_POINT_ONE) #define FIXED_MULT(x, y) ((x)*(y) >> FRACT_BITS) #define FIXED_DIV(x, y) (((x)<<FRACT_BITS) / (y)) /* tests */ int main() { int_fixed fixed_x = MAKE_FLOAT_FIXED( 4.5f ); int_fixed fixed_y = MAKE_INT_FIXED( 2 ); int_fixed fixed_result = FIXED_MULT( fixed_x, fixed_y ); printf( "%.1f\n", MAKE_FIXED_FLOAT( fixed_result ) ); fixed_result = FIXED_DIV( fixed_result, fixed_y ); printf( "%.1f\n", MAKE_FIXED_FLOAT( fixed_result ) ); return 0; }
哪个写出来
9.0 4.5
请注意,这些宏存在各种整数溢出问题,我只是想使宏保持简单。这只是我在C中如何完成此操作的一个简单而又肮脏的示例。在C ++中,我们可以使用运算符重载使事情变得更加清晰。实际上,我们也可以轻松地使C代码更加漂亮……
我猜这是一个漫长的说法:我认为可以使用typedef和宏方法。只要我们清楚哪些变量包含定点值,就很难维护它,但是它可能不会像C ++类那样漂亮。
如果我处于位置,我将尝试获取一些分析数据以显示瓶颈所在。如果它们相对较少,则使用typedef和宏。如果我们决定需要使用定点数学方法对所有浮点数进行全局替换,那么使用类可能会更好。